The Nonlinear Structure of the Sorrow of War

Bao Ninh is a Vietnamese war veteran and the author of what is said to be â€Å"one of the most moving war novels of all time† (Gareth Smith), The Sorrow of War. In the epic tale, Bao tells the story of Kien in a nonlinear narrative, weaving in and out of stories of young love and war, each failing to complete its own objectives: to come home and live in peace with those they love. It compares the ‘sorrow of war' to the sorrow of love, both nostalgic as Kien looks back on what has been lost, and the heartbreak created.Bao compares the two sorrows by intertwining flashbacks and events occurring in the present. Bao writes very straight-forwardly when speaking of war, but leaves much to be explained when describing the seemingly complicated relationship of Kien and Phuong. The nonlinear structure, non-chronological sequence of events, and Bao's saving of key information until the very end of the novel, distorts the view of their relationship so that it appears to be a more hostile than loving. This technique creates character depth in Kien, describing why he becomes the man he does: sad and full of regret.In the novel Kien's best friend from the war, Oanh, is killed by a beautiful woman on the front lines. It is mentioned multiple times in the novel that Phuong had wanted to participate in fighting in the war, as she made clear the night before Kien left for war, stating â€Å"I'll see you to the gate of the battlefront, just to see what it's like† (136). This event is a major turning point in the tone that Kien and Phuong's relationship is discussed. This event is a reminder of the loss he suffered by leaving her as well as reminding Kien of all the things he loved about her, including her beauty and strength.Before the death of Oanh, Kien appears to be more focused on the negative aspects in their relationship, such as their breakup, the struggles he faces as she tries to move on with her life, and his losing battle with Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. Kien's post-war difficulties, particularly with Phuong, can be best described by the character himself as he ponders the difficulties he's faced in his life since the end of the war, â€Å"†¦Though now he often drowned himself in alcohol, though hundreds of times he pleaded with his inner self to calm down, he was constantly torn with pain recalling the post war times he had with Phuong.His life, after ten destructive years of war, had been punctured by the sharp thorns of love† (84). The idea that Phuong is the main reason Kien is so depressed after the war is introduced early on and is mentioned many times in the beginning of the novel. Generally, in the beginning of a book with a traditional structure, characters are still being introduced and are receiving information that is vital to the rest of the story. In the beginning of The Sorrow of War, Kien often reflects on ‘the love he knew had been within him seemed to have drained away' (31).The audienc e is generally in the traditional mindset. This gives the audience the false impression that Phuong was never as in love with him as he was with her, or at all, since she can move on with her life and watch him struggle to move on with his. This distorts the view of the relationship because Phuong is being mistaken for a cruel person, begging the question of how this could possibly be one of the greatest loves of all time. The idea that the person you love most does not love you back creates a deep empathy toward Kien, and gives him depth as a character because his levels of depression are justified.Kien often dwells on Phuong's unrequited love for him and his failed attempts to forget her, stating ‘he had tried desperately to forget Phuong, but she was unforgettable. He longed for her still† (71). Despite this, Kien's belief that â€Å"nothing lasts forever, including love and sorrow† (71) gives him faith that one day the pain will go away if he continues on his damaging path. This hope for the better despite the destructive path he has placed himself ironically shows his strength.The focus shifts from Kien's depression and his awful post-war relationship with Phuong to a discussion of their pure love before the war after Oanh's death. Before the war, Kien and Phuong were inseparable. The intensity of their relationship is best described through the narrator's mention of â€Å"neither of them had other close friends. Others seemed unable to penetrate their cocoon of friendship† (131). Phuong often refers to herself as Kien's wife, as Kien and the rest of Hanoi expects her to be. This part of the novel chronicles their shift from best friends to lovers, although their ove was never consummated.Kien would never accept Phuong's advances to make love to him. This is what makes their love so true and desirable, because it is innocent and pure. His denial of her, however, also distorts the view of the relationship because it now appears th at he does not want her or is not as attracted to her as she is to him, a feeling Phuong will later direct toward Kien. The love they share appears to be on some scale that is never even. With all this, Phuong is still viewed as the unkind woman she was previously regarded as.Her kindness is almost viewed as her having an ulterior motive because of the way she was described earlier in the novel. Before Kien leaves for war, Phuong tells him that â€Å"from now on I'll be a lover and wife to you; I'll never be angry at you, and remember, I'm not taking leave of my senses. Not yet†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (136). By Phuong says that she isn't taking leave of her senses, she is solidifying that she's thought what she said through and that she is making a promise to Kien rather than a statement. If Phuong had promised Kien that she would love him forever, it raises the question of why she left him later on in life.It also appears Phuong has contradicted herself. She promised she would never be angr y at him and later allows him to suffer without her. These questions are frequent because of the knowledge collected at the beginning of the novel. This promise is very misleading and is a large contributor as to why Kien feels the heartbreak he does later in life when Phuong is anything but a wife to him. It begs the question of how a love so pure and strong could disappear. It is almost as if key elements or events are being kept secret. And they are.After the explosion, rape, and murders at the Hanoi train station, Kien and Phuong continue their journey into the frontlines but not before they stop at a school house to rest. After harassment from a group of soldiers, including accusations that Phuong had cheated on Kien, Kien leaves her at the school without any notice. Later, he receives a letter from the men in the schoolhouse apologizing: â€Å"We had made a big mistake in kidding you about what she did†¦Contrary to what we told you, your girlfriend was not like that at a ll†¦She was very much in love with you† (226).This information is key to the story because it proves that Phuong was truly committed and in love with him after all, and he left her. Had the narrative been in chronological order, one would have sympathized much more with Phuong and would not have thought so harshly of her and the reasons she left and got over him would have been much more justified. The narrative instead gave a deep analysis as to why Kien is so depressed and how deep their love for each other was and continued to be.Upon, reading this letter it â€Å"warmed Kien's heart, consoling and cheering him, he began to hope for something like a miracle†¦He might have something wonderful to return to after all† (226), which was sadly not the case. The nonlinear structure of the story and non-chronological order of events not only distorts the relationship and creates character depth, but masterfully describes the sorrow of war, and the even deeper, sorr ow of love. By describing war's destruction on, not only countries, but on our most intimate relationships. Ninh presents the idea that after war, it is not possible to have love, which is the sorrow of both love and war.

Comparing Rich Points

Comparing Rich Points: Understanding Japanese Languaculture Research Thesis Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for graduation with Research Distinction in Japanese in the Department of East Asian Languages & Literature at The Ohio State University by Andrew Gaddis The Ohio State University March 2012 Project Advisor: Professor James M. Unger, Department of East Asian Language and Literature 1 1. Introduction In this thesis, I attempt to show the linguistic and non-linguistic behaviors that are found prominently throughout Japanese society. This paper is divided into two major parts.The first is devoted to describing the prominence of the metaphorical concept LEARNING IS A JOURNEY in the linguistic behavior of Japan. The second describes how the same metaphorical concept is also found throughout the non-linguistic behavior of the Japanese culture. Based on Lakoff and Johnson’s (1979) general theory of meaning, this paper examines a particular instance of the r elationship between Japanese culture and language in detail, namely the Sino-Japanese noun doo ‘road, way’ ? and native noun miti. Lakoff and Johnson argue convincingly that metaphors are not just literary or poetic uses of words separate from ordinary language use.Metaphorical relations, in their view, are essential to how speakers of a language deal with meanings. One of their key examples is the journey metaphor seen in such English sentences as â€Å"We arrived at a conclusion† and â€Å"I don’t think our relationship is going anywhere. † For Lakoff and Johnson, such sentences illustrate the metaphors ARGUMENTS ARE JOURNEYS and LOVE IS A JOURNEY. Sino-Japanese doo is frequently used as a suffix in nouns with meanings that connote a spiritual path or way, or at least some method of self-cultivation. Since the character ? s customarily glossed miti, this native noun too has that metaphorical connotation. This character was adopted from China by wa y of the Korean peninsula in 2 the 1st millennium CE (Frellesvig 2010), where it long had a strong metaphorical connotation (spiritual path or way) already in the classics of the 1st millennium BCE, most notably the Daodejing of Laozi . Today, we see its widespread use in non-Daoist contexts. I argue that these expressions show that the underlying metaphor LEARNING IS A JOURNEY is particularly robust in Japan language life (gengo seikatu . By comparing Japanese doo and miti ‘road, path’ with English journey, we find similarities and differences that can be understood in terms of the concepts languaculture and rich points introduced by Michael Agar in his book Language Shock. As I will discuss in detail in Section 4, Agar argues (1) that language use cannot be understood outside the cultural context in which it is used, and (2) that conspicuous differences in the way two languacultures talk about the same or similar real-world facts and events reveal how they are struc tured.Human beings have much in common all over the world, so similarities in languacultures are numerous and expected, at least for people living in similar ecological circumstances. Rich points stand out precisely because they occur unexpectedly when one compares two languacultures. By comparing Japanese doo and miti with English journey in Lakoff and Johnson’s sense, I propose to show that the journey metaphor is a locus of an important rich point found within the two languacultures. I turn to the topic of pilgrimages in the second part of the paper (Section 5).Pilgrimages has long had played a significant role in Japanese religious practice. By the time of the Edo period, a gentleman was expected to cultivate skills in â€Å"medicine, poetry, the tea ceremony, music, the hand drum, the noh dance, etiquette, the 3 appreciation of craft work, arithmetic, calculation, literary composition, reading and writing† (Totman 1993,186). Once one has acquired considerable skil l in the art of pursuit, they would often go on a pilgrimage to learn more about the art and study the methods used in distant places. For this reason, pilgrimages were an important learning experience for the Japanese people.Here, I argue that the concept of LEARNING IS A JOURNEY exists even in the non-linguistic behavioral context. In the end of the section, I argue that LEARNING IS A JOURNEY is a common concept to both the linguistic domain and the non-linguistic domain of Japanese languaculture. I attempt to prove that the commonality found in the two domains is not due to a cause-and-effect relationship, where one domain causes the other. Instead, I suggest that both of these behaviors have their origins from a common set of historical circumstances, namely the impact of Chinese culture, Buddhism and Daoism.I argue that the impact of Buddhism and Daoism on Japanese intellectual thought have played a bigger role in shaping this conceptual metaphor that are prominently seen in bo th the linguistic and non-linguist domains of Japanese culture. 2. Theory of metaphor For most people, metaphorical expressions are assumed to be extensions of ordinary language, that is, instances of language outside of conventional usage intended to represent or suggest non-literal meaning. For this reason, metaphor is seen as extraordinary—a device of the literary or poetic imagination. Opposing this view, 4Lakoff and Johnson argue that metaphor is pervasive in everyday language, thought, and action. To understand metaphor, one must first identify its source. Lakoff and Johnson claim that metaphor originates in prelinguistic thought, not in language per se. Our concepts structure what we perceive, how we get around in the world, and how we relate to other people. Thus, our conceptual system plays a central role in defining our notions of reality. Since we are not consciously aware of most of the actions we do everyday, distinguishing the different components of our concept ual system is by no means straightforward.However, because communication is based on the same conceptual system that we use in thinking and acting, we can figure out just what that system is like through linguistic analyses. To give a concrete example, Lakoff and Johnson start off with the concept ARGUMENT and the conceptual metaphor ARGUMENT IS WAR. The following is a list of sentences that they cite to illustrate this point: ARGUMENT IS WAR Your claims are indefensible. He attacked every weak point in my argument. His criticisms were right on target. I’ve never won an argument with him. You disagree? Okay, shoot! (Lakoff & Johnson 1979, 4) 5Notice that these sentences are not just explicitly about war but the actions mentioned in the sentences only make sense in relation to the concept of war. Since argument is an attempt to persuade someone of something or to accept a particular conclusion, we can conceive of arguments as something to win or lose. We defend our position an d strategize a way to attack our opponent’s claims. Though a physical battle does not take place, a verbal one does, and many of the actions we perform in an argument reflect this. This instance well illustrates how metaphor pervades not just language but thought and action as well.The full significance of this theory does not come into sight when looking at a single language and its ambient culture. Try to imagine a culture where arguments are not viewed in terms or war, where no one wins or loses, or where there is no sense of attacking or defending. Imagine a culture where direct confrontation is shunned, where people are extremely cautious not to disprove the opinions of others, where the participants’ social statuses determine the amount of force that will be considered as appropriate in the conversation, and go-betweens are used to solve most conflicts.In such a culture, people would, according to Lakoff and Johnson, view, experience, perform, and talk about the arguments differently. But the people of our culture might not see them as â€Å"arguing† at all, because what they are doing does not fit our metaphorical understanding of what constitutes arguing. This is how a metaphorical concept structures what we do and how we experience it. It is not that arguments are a subspecies of war in any metaphysical sense. It is rather there is a type of conversation that, in English-speaking culture, is 6 viewed, experienced, performed, and talked about in terms of war.The concept is metaphorically structured, the activity is metaphorically structured, and, consequently, the language is metaphorically structured. Although metaphor plays a central role in structuring language, there is nevertheless an extensive range of concepts that are not comprehended with the use of metaphor, which often is referred to literal language. For example, the sentence â€Å"The apple fell on Newton’s head† can be deployed in a completely literal wa y. It could be an example sentence in an academic paper on generative syntax, or a sentence in a child’s book explaining a picture.But in our language, one is more likely to encounter this sentence in a context in which it is freighted with metaphorical meaning. It is typically deployed in contexts where the speaker wants to let the listener know that s/he sees a relevant comparison between something they have either observed or known about and beliefs they share about the invention and discovery. The sentence may be used in a humorous or ironic way (making fun of someone suddenly realizing something), or a dramatic, serious way (praising someone with a proverbial reference).By comparing our abstractions (ideas, emotions, etc. ) to what can be physically experienced, we can get a grasp on them in clearer terms. The JOURNEY metaphor is commonly used in many languages. In English, we have many expressions where the concept of love is often described as that of a journey, which will be referred to as LOVE IS A JOURNEY metaphor. For example, take a look at the following common expressions: 7 Look how far we’ve come. We’re at a crossroads. We’ll just have to go our separate ways. We can’t turn back now. I don’t think this relationship is going anywhere.Where are we? We’re stuck. It’s been a long, bumpy road. This relationship is a dead-end street. We’re just spinning our wheels. We’ve gotten off the track. (Lakoff & Johnson 1979, 44) In every case, love is understood in terms of a journey. It is clear that the lovers are the travelers, and the relationship is the vehicle. The purpose of the journey is for the travelers to reach a destination, more precisely, for the lovers to accomplish their goals of common interest. What the dead-end street and spinning wheels are alluding to are the difficulties in reaching that destination.The purpose of these expressions is to encourage the listener to draw an inference. Take the expression â€Å"Where are we? † for example. Outside of the love metaphor context, it is a simple question. The metaphorical context invites the listener to reflect on how things came to be the way they are, how they might have turned out differently, and what could be done now to 8 change them. By accepting the scenario of making a journey toward the consummation of love, we can comprehend the analogy used to reason the human relationship of love.To end the section on a similar note, it is sometimes said that English secondlanguage learners have trouble with expressions like â€Å"We’re at a crossroads† or â€Å"it’s been a long, bumpy road. † The likely reason for this is because the difficult part of acquiring language proficiency does not so much lie in the process of mastering the vocabulary or grammar of a language, but mastering the metaphors typically used in the language. This is especially the case since dictionari es take only limited account of the metaphorical meaning of words and phrases.The problem is that ways of talking about the experience of love in English language are metaphorically absent in the learner’s language and culture. 1 Therefore, learning to recognize the metaphorical relations in language is key not only to understanding the way the speakers of the language conceptualize the world but also to acquiring language proficiency. The concept is metaphorically structured, the activity is metaphorically structured, and, consequently, the language is metaphorically structured. 3. doo and miti? Much like in the English language, the JOURNEY metaphor is a frequently used concept in the Japanese language.Take a look at the following examples of the LOVE 1 An idiom is a word or phrase that is morphologically or syntactically irregular with respect to the language in which it occurs. Native speakers often know an expression is idiomatic when asked. Metaphors, on the other hand, often occur below the level of consciousness. 9 IS A JOURNEY metaphor in Japanese: (1) a. koi no katamiti kippu love GEN one-way ticket ‘One-way ticket to love’ b. koizi no yami love’s pathway GEN darkness ‘Love is blind’ c. miti naranu koi path will not love Illicit love affair’ d. huuhu no miti husband and wife GEN path ‘marital values’ Again, in every case love is understood in terms of a journey. It is clear that the lovers are the travelers, and the relationship is the vehicle. It is noteworthy to mention, that the relationship can take various forms of a vehicle in the journey. Notice that there 10 is no single consistent vehicle that the journey metaphors all use. In example (1a) the vehicle of the relationship is some mode of public transport. Consider a situation when this expression is used.Given that this expression about a relationship is understood in terms of travel, the kind of reasoning evoked should generally reflect a situation where the lovers (travelers) are in a quickly progressing relationship (vehicle) to their goal of common interest (destination). The one-way ticket most likely implies that returning back to the start of the journey is not considered for the travellers, and that they are fast approaching their destination as if they were traveling by some mode of public transport. The rest of the examples, unlike (1a), do not specify the means of transportation for the travelers.For examples (1b) and (1c), this is because the purpose of the expression is to describe the impediments the travelers encounter in pursuing the destination. The literal translation of the two would be ‘darkness of love’s pathway,’ and ‘path that will not lead to the destination of love. ’ What the darkness and misguided path are alluding to is the difficulties in reaching the destination, both of which implies that a change of action needs to be taken to successfully rea ch the destination. (1d) literally translates ‘the path of the married couple. This expression represents the ideal path a married couple should take. Take a look at the following for examples of the LIFE IS A JOURNEY metaphor, which is also commonly found in both languages. (2) 11 a. zinsei yama ari tani ari life mountain exists valley exists ‘Life has its ups and down’ b. ikiru miti live (vb) road ‘The road of life’ c. senri no miti mo ippo kara thousand-mile GEN road FOC one-step ABL ‘A journey of a thousand miles begins with a single step’ Notice that the literal translation of these expressions in Japanese and English are highly idiomatic.This is why a word for word rendering of the expressions would seem unnatural. In example (2a), the lexical items yama ‘mountain’ and tani ‘valley’ are translated â€Å"ups† and â€Å"downs. † Knowing that this expression represents life as a sort of journe y with obstacles to overcome, we can conjecture the logic behind this expression without much effort. A traveler would occasionally encounter times of relative ease and difficulty throughout the journey. While walking up a mountain is a laborious task, walking down the mountain into the valley requires considerably less effort.What the metaphor suggests is that the experience of life is much like that. There are times of ups and downs, good and bad, easy and hard etc. Nevertheless, if the expression were to remain in its literal translation, â€Å"life has its 12 mountains and valleys,† it would not be too difficult for the English speaker to comprehend the message being communicated. Since LIFE IS A JOURNEY is a commonly used metaphor in the English language as well, the enormous amount of information that is not explicitly provided will be understood from the knowledge of how life is understood in relation to a journey.It is not that the languages do not have expressions th at are equivalent in meaning, but it is more that the lexical items used to construct a metaphorical expression in one language do not match the lexical items in the other. Therefore, even if the expression is uncommon to the hearer, given that it is a commonly used metaphor in the languages, an intelligent guess can be made to make sense of it all. The following is an example of the LEARNING IS A JOURNEY metaphor: (3) gakumon ni oodoo nasi scholarship DAT royal-road non-existent ‘There is no Royal Road to learning’Based on the meaning of this expression described in the Nihon Kokugo Daijiten, the phrase is a translation of the proverbial expression ‘There is no Royal Road to learning’. This phrase is legendarily attributed to Euclid, who is said to have used it in reply to a king’s request for an easier way to learn geometry. A Persian Royal Road actually existed; it was a 1677-mile long highway stretching, in modern terms, from the center of Iran to northern Turkey. To get from the starting point to the end of the highway 13 is believed to have taken over 90 days on foot, but only a week by horse (Herodotus 1889, 213).By metaphorizing the process of learning geometry as a lengthy journey, the claim that a Royal Road did not exist not only signified that there was no shortcut but also that even a king could not make one, as the Persian kings had made the Royal Road. It is interesting to note that despite long survival and overuse, the metaphor retains an appeal for speakers of many languages and is still used. Even Sigmund Freud famously described dreams as â€Å"Royal Road to the unconscious† in The Interpretation of Dreams, 1889 [1998]. In the context of Japanese culture, however, there are many expressions where learning is understood in terms of a journey.The reason for this is because the metaphor LEARNING IS A JOURNEY is a more salient feature in the Japanese language. The following are commonly used expressions of the LEARNING IS A JOURNEY metaphor in Japanese: (4) a. manabi no miti o aruku learning GEN road ACC walk (vb) ‘Walk the way of learning’ b. manabi no miti-annai learning GEN guidepost ‘A guidepost of learning’ 14 c. manabi no sen-ri no miti learning GEN thousand-ri GEN road ‘The thousand-ri way of learning d. manabi no miti ni wa owari wa nai learning GEN the way LOC TOP end TOP non-existent There is no end in the way of learning’ The examples in (4) shows that a metaphorical noun phrase ? ’ â€Å"path† modified by â€Å"learning† can be used in the various expressions. In every case, learning is understood in terms of a journey, and it is clear that the learner is a traveler in pursuit of knowledge. The purpose of the journey is for the traveler to reach a desired destination, more specifically, acquiring knowledge. In these examples, learning relates to journey in the sense that the traveler will leave his or her known environment and venture into an unknown place where new discoveries will be made.In example (4a) the traveler is selfpropelled. That is to say, the traveler’s volition is the vehicle. The expression is probably used in situations where the person using the phrase is still in the progress of acquiring knowledge. Example (4b) illustrates a situation where the learner (traveler) makes use of available resources to alleviate the impediments of reaching the destination (acquiring knowledge). For instance, a traveler will often make use of guideposts as a guide for reaching the desired destination. Similarly, the learner will often rely on teachers, books, 15 r the like to guide them to acquiring knowledge. (4c) illustrates a situation where acquiring knowledge is an arduous task, and it compares this difficulty of attaining knowledge to long distance travel. (4d) is a common expression saying that there is no end to learning. Again, we know that all of these expressions are metaphorical because none of them would make sense literally. More examples are provided in (5): (5) a. zyoodoo become road (the way) ‘completing the path of becoming a Buddha’ b. zyuudoo gentleness road (the way) ‘judo’ c, aiki syuutoku e no miti aiki acquisition -to GEN road (the way) The way to aikido acquisition’ According to the Nihon Kokugo Daijiten, zyoodoo is Buddhist terminology that refers to either the moment a Bodhisattva becomes a Buddha after completing certain 16 practices and attains enlightenment, or the time Shakyamuni became enlightened sitting under the Bo tree. This Sino-Japanese term in its literal sense originally meant to attain the way. Zyoodoo is metaphorical inasmuch as it referred in the first instance to the historical Buddha but could then refer to someone else becoming a Buddha; this was no doubt borrowed from a preexisting metaphor use in Chinese.In the case of judo, as shown in (5b), we know that this is in fact a native Japanese noun coined in the Meiji period by the scholar Kano Jigoro (Watson 2008, xv). Before this coinage, this style of fighting was referred to as zyuzyutsu. Which makes sense since martial arts terminology prior to the Meiji period generally used the suffix ? zyutu ‘art, means, technique’ instead of the suffix ? doo. Zyuzyutsu was a brutal method of open handed combat that Kano felt was too violent for the modern age. Thus, in the interest of safety and practicality, he turned it into a sport under the name judo.The new institution Kodokan that he opened in Tokyo was, in his eyes, a place where â€Å"one is guided along a road to follow in life† (Watson 2008, xvi). It must be the case that he applied the suffix doo due to the fact that the metaphorical connotations it carried was appropriate for his philosophy2. The example in (5c) is a title of a book written by Kimura Tatsuo, a mathematics professor at the University of Tsukuba and an aikido enthusia st, about the art of aikido. Syuutoku e no miti generally means ‘the road to acquiring. ’ This phrase is often used to modify the nominal it follows.Thus, aiki syuutoku e no miti in its metaphorical sense means ‘the road to gaining knowledge about aikido. ’ 2 Many other traditional arts and martial arts employed the suffix doo (e. g. kendoo ‘kendo,’ kyuudoo ‘archery,’ sadoo ‘tea ceremony, way of tea’). 17 The reason for the many LEARNING IS A JOURNEY expressions arising in the Japanese language is attributed to an earlier influence from the Chinese classic Daodejing of Laozi. The Chinese word dao (‘road, way’ ? ) has long had strong metaphorical connotation of spiritual path or way. When the oanword and character were adopted in Japanese in the 1st millennium CE, along with them came the connotation. As stated earlier, learning is understood in part by the journey metaphor. Since this thought is crucial to the formation of the meaning, we see an abundance of words whose meanings are shaped by this metaphor. Take the native Japanese verb mitibiku ‘to guide; to lead; to show the way,’ for example. It is a compound word of ? miti and hiku ‘to lead, pull’. This word has departed from the literal meaning based on the meaning of components miti and hiku.We can see this from the following excerpt written by the Japanese poet, Yamanoue no Okura in the Man’yoshu: (6) moromoro no oomikami-tati hunanohe ni mitibiki moosi various NOM god PLUR prow LOC guide request ‘Various gods, I request you to guide this ship by its prow’ The literal meaning based on the components of the word cannot be applied here; however, the metaphorical extension of the meaning can be applied. According to the Nihon Kokugo Daijiten, the word has come to mean â€Å"guide† at least since the 8th 18 century, as we can tell from its use in the excerpt.The definition provided here is not the literal meaning, but the metaphorical. The fact that a metaphorical extension has been added to the literal meaning of the word, illustrates how a new metaphorical connotation may be incorporated into the original literal meaning of a word. In the case of , what probably happened was that the literal meaning it was originally associated with was bleached out over time, and took on the metaphorical meaning as its dominant meaning. Through these examples, we have seen that the journey metaphor has a significant role in the Japanese language. Since the expressions provided n this section are highly idiomatic, in most cases, a word for word rendering of the expressions may not intuitively make sense for the non-native speakers of Japanese. However, that does not take away the fact that the expressions in question surfaces from the same underlying metaphor. There are cases where both languages have an expression that serves the same purpose but the lexical matc hing is not quite the same, and there are cases where lexical matchings will be nearly exact. On the other hand, we have also seen how it is possible for a metaphor to be more salient in one language than in the other.These examples illustrate just how a metaphor common to both languages can manifest itself differently. 4. Languacultures and Rich Points To better understand the similarities and differences of the journey metaphor used in the English and Japanese language, I would like to present the concepts 19 languaculture and rich points introduced by Michael Agar in his book Language Shock. Languaculture refers to the notion that a system of conventionalized symbols, sounds, gestures, or the like used by a particular community for communication cannot be understood without also knowing the conventional behaviors and beliefs of that community.Therefore, he argues, it is necessary to tie the concept of language and culture together whenever talking about language (Agar 1994, 60). Rich point refers to a moment when a person is at a languacultural interface and encounters a difference in the ways of communicating from his or her cultural assumptions3. Let us look at the study of junkies by Agar to illustrate this example of rich points. Junkie is a term often used to refer to heroine addicts. During his two-year service in the U. S. Public Health Service, Agar worked to help treat heroin addicts.As a linguist, he started on a collection of terms used by the addicts. What he found peculiar about the collection of terms was that even though they spoke the same language as he did, they made use of certain words that was unique to the junkies. For example, the process of injecting heroin would be described in different terms by junkies, as opposed to people with background in the medical field. The premedical student will most likely begin describing the process like the following, â€Å"Well, you first take this hypodermic syringe, and then †¦ while the jun kie will say, â€Å"First, you take the works, and then †¦ † According to Agar, the heroin users he met during his service used what is referred to as the works to inject heroin; an assembly of the top of a baby pacifier fastened onto an eyedropper with a needle slipped over its narrow end and a gasket of thread or paper to hold it tight. For this reason, the term works is 3 The term languaculture refers to the notion that the use of language differs with respect to its culture. Therefore, differences in language use also occur within a language by various other subcultures. 0 generally used in their culture to refer to the instrument used for injecting heroin. Now, suppose a context where two junkies are walking up the stairs in a building. Here is what they say: (7) â€Å"Say man, you got your works with you? † â€Å"Yeah, they’re right here in my pocket. Don’t worry about it. † (Agar 1994, 90) After learning what the term works refers to, a n ordinary person may infer that this is a situation where a junkie inquires another to make sure he has the necessary equipment for getting intoxicated. However, that was not the reason for their exchange.Instead, they were concerned about the possibility of an authority being in the proximity. Since the possession of this instrument justifies arrest, the junkies were concerned because they were confined in an enclosed space; an enclosed space does not have much room to run or get rid of the evidence. The reason for the exchange quoted above is that one junkie is worried about the possibility of an authority being in the proximity, and the other reassured that he could get rid of the instrument quickly if an authoritative figure were to appear, since they are right in his pocket.This sort of encounter that arises from one’s languacultural assumptions is what Agar refers to rich points. Human beings have much in common all over the world, so similarities in languacultures are numerous and expected, at least for people living in similar ecological circumstances. However, occasionally an unexpected use of language will arise which reflects a difference between the underlying conceptual systems between the two languacultures. These conspicuous differences found in the 21 way two languacultures talk about the same or similar real-world facts and events reveal how they are structured.Having established these points, we can now see the similarities and differences that can be understood in terms of languaculture and rich point. As we have seen, the journey metaphor in Japanese languaculture is similar in many respects to that of the English languaculture. A person of the English languaculture can apply many similar uses of the journey metaphor used in his language to convey messages in Japanese. However, once we took a look at the LEARNING IS A JOURNEY metaphor, we noticed that there is some underlying difference between the two systems of languacultures.This rich point shows that the journey metaphor used in the Japanese languaculture is not always congruent to its uses in the English languaculture, more precisely that the conceptual metaphor LEARNING IS A JOURNEY is a much more salient feature of the Japanese languaculture. The reason why this rich point stands out to the English speaking community is precisely because we place a higher emphasis on knowledge as an entity that can be acquired. Take for example common English expressions like â€Å"I was hunting for the facts,† â€Å"I had to track that down,† â€Å"he won his degree at Oxford. The emphasis for these examples is that knowledge is something to be collected, whereas in Japanese, they place a stronger emphasis on knowledge as something that is to be transmitted to the learner through the process of engaging in the act, as we have seen in the LEARNING IS A JOURNEY examples. 22 5. Pilgrimages in Japan Now that we have made this point that the LEARNING IS A JOU RNEY metaphor is a more prominent feature of Japanese languaculture than English languaculture, let us see how it relates to observations we make about English and Japanese behavioral culture.For one, pilgrimages are loaded with rich points. As we can tell from such classical literary works like Heike monogatari and Sarashina nikki, pilgrimages have been an important religious practice for the Japanese people from at least the Heian period. Although it was originally an aristocratic practice, all classes of people were allowed to go on pilgrimages by the time of the Edo period (Vaporis 2008, 165). Due to the development of a national infrastructure provided with lodging, towns, and horses, this period of peace allowed for the masses to travel comfortably in search of spiritual fulfillment.The commoners were permitted to travel by the authorities as long as they were going on a pilgrimage or had familial purposes. Among the many temples and shrines in Japan, the amount of people maki ng pilgrimages to the Ise shrine increased rapidly. The Ise shrine is a Shinto shrine dedicated to the goddess Amaterasu in the city of Ise in Mie prefecture. Since ancient times, the festivals and offerings of the Ise shrine has been scheduled based on the cycle of agriculture. People would go to Ise to give thanks to the kami and pray for a plentiful harvest. ()The desire to make a pilgrimage to Ise Shrine, at least once in one’s life was universal among Japanese people of the day. The people who have had the opportunity to undertake the pilgrimage would share the things that they had seen and heard on the 23 journey. These travelers’ tales inspired others to undertake the journey, in a cycle that perpetuated the legendary status of the Ise pilgrimage as something that everyone should do at least once in their lives. The Edo period is often referred to as a time of peace and stability in Japan, and as such the people had the means and leisure time to pursue their aes thetic enjoyment.To explain, Tokugawa ideology grouped higher cultural attainments into two categories, bu and bun, military and literary arts. A gentleman of the time were expected to show interest in bun, more so than bu. Bun embraced reading and writing, Chinese thought, poetry, history and literature, noh dance and drama, tea ceremony, and other customary arts (Totman 1993, 186). Once one has acquired considerable skill in the art of pursuit, they would often go on a pilgrimage to learn more about the art and methods used in distant places. Thus, pilgrimages were an important learning experience for the Japanese people.Take the renowned haiku poet Matsuo Basho for example. In his travel diary Oku no hoso miti (Keene 1996), Basho journeys on foot to see the sites that had inspired famous poets before him. He knew the location of the places the poems described, and it was important for him to get a direct experience with the inspiration the poets must have felt when composing thei r poem. Basho’s descriptions of the places he visited, many of which were at shrines and temples, were significant not just because the sites were awe-inspiring, but because of the legends and poems associated with the locations.Like the poems that inspired Basho to take on the journey, his own work have in turn inspired others to travel and learn about the places he talk about from a first hand experience. 24 Sangaku pilgrimages are another example. Sangaku are geometrical puzzles written on wooden tablets, which were placed as offerings at Buddhist temples and Shinto shrines. In Japan, it is fairly natural to hang wooden tablets at shrines and temples; for centuries before sangaku came into existence, worshippers would bring gifts like the sort to local shrines. The kami, it was said, loved horses, but horses were expensive.So a worshipper who could not afford to offer a living one, offered a horse drawn on a piece wood instead. In fact, many tablets from the fifteenth cent ury and earlier depict horses (Fukagawa & Rothman 2008, 8). However, there was also a practical purpose in hanging the tablets. Ordinary people at the time could not afford to publish books with their novel mathematical problems. Therefore, as an alternative solution to gain recognition, they took up the ancient custom of bringing votive tablets to temples and began to hang sangaku to advertise their work (Fukagawa & Rothman 2008, 21).Just like the poets who would travel for the sake of knowledge and experience, a number of geometers including Hodoji Zen, and Sakuma Yoken took â€Å"sangaku pilgrimages† to teach mathematics, encourage amateurs and lovers of geometry, and to hang and see previously hung sangaku in temples around the country. Among these itinerants was Yamaguchi Kanzan, a mathematician from the school of Hasegawa Hiroshi. In his journeys, he recorded a substantial travel diary that describes the sights, meetings with friends and other mathematicians, and the sa ngaku, problems he came across.With many distant mathematicians, he has discussed new technical methods of solving mathematical problems. â€Å"If you buy this book,† he claimed, â€Å"then you will be able to know and obtain without traveling the new technical 25 methods of solving problems of far-away mathematicians† (Fukagawa & Rothman 2008, 244). () Pilgrimages were an important method of self-cultivation for people from all walks for life, with interests ranging from martial arts to moral philosophy. There are many reasons for the rise in popularity of pilgrimages, but it is probably the case that the roots of this trend come from Zen Buddhism.The history of Zen begins in Japan with the samurai class of Kamakura. Zen Buddhism had little chance of becoming popular in Heian period Kyoto due to the strong opposition of the older schools of Buddhism. Where as in Kamakura, there were no such difficulties. Due to its philosophical and moral nature, Zen appealed greatly to the military classes (Suzuki 1959, 60). As the samurai’s became a new force in politics, they brought with them the newly embraced religion to the court.This in turn had significant influence in not only the court, but through general cultural life of the Japanese people all the way to the Edo period. Buddhist models inspired many of these pilgrimages that we see throughout history. The prototypical pilgrimages example in Japan is when Zen priests go on angya ‘pilgrimage’ , which literally means, â€Å"to go on foot. † Historically, angya referred to the common practice of Zen monks and nuns travelling from master to master, or monastery to monastery, in search of someone to practice Zen with (Baroni 2002, 8).So pilgrimages in Japan took the introduction of Buddhism, which later became associated with prominent Chinese cultures like Daoism, as we can tell from the various pilgrims mentioned earlier. The interesting thing about it is that this religious practice of undertaking a pilgrimage as a method of self-cultivation is emulated by 26 various other disciplines like the ones mentioned in example (5). It is also interesting to note the varying degree of prominence the intellectual journey has in the context of Japanese culture as opposed to the anglophone culture.Although the concept of an intellectual journey exists in the English-speaking world (e. g. visiting national parks, field trips etc. ), it is not quite as common or close to everyday consciousness as it is in Japan. The lack of explicit metaphors that reflect the notion of LEARNING IS A JOURNEY in English languaculture suggests a correlation of this difference with cultural behavior. The question then arises, what is the nature of the correlation between the observations we make in the linguistic and non-linguistic behavior we see about the Japanese?Is it the fact pilgrimages have had played a big role in the history of Japanese culture that because of the metaphorical bias of LEARNING IS A JOURNEY? Or is the causal relation the other way around? Or is there some third explanation? The main reason for the correlation we find between these two types of behavior is probably not a direct causal relationship between the two. Instead, the impact of Daoism and Buddhism on Japanese thought have probably played a role in making both the metaphor and the pilgrimage behavior prominent in Japan.This is indicated by the fact that many pilgrimages were inspired by Buddhist models, which also had a great impact on vocabulary and the content of literature; the relationship therefore seems the result of a common set of historical circumstances affecting both linguistic and non-linguistic behaviors. Both are an expression of this influence. 6. Concluding remarks 27 In this paper, I have given a contrastive analysis of the role the journey metaphor plays in the English and Japanese languages.I have argued that although there are many similarities in the use of the journey metaphor in the two languages, there also are remarkable differences in that the LEARNING IS A JOURNEY metaphor is a much more salient feature of the Japanese language. Based on the concepts languaculture and rich points, I have attempted to show that the LEARNING IS A JOURNEY metaphor is a locus of an important rich point in Japanese culture, in the sense that it is an underlying conceptual metaphor, which manifests itself in both the linguistic and nonlinguistic behavior of the Japanese culture.To illustrate how this finding might be applied to non-linguistic behavior, I have also examined the issue of pilgrimages. It seems that the correlation between the salience of the metaphor and pilgrimages are due to a common set of historical causes; it does not seem to be the case that the salience of the metaphor was caused by the practice of pilgrimages or vice versa. A contrastive analysis of metaphorical conceptualization proves to be a useful method when examining behavioral differences between two cultures.Further research of this kind should help understand similarities and differences in cultural cognition, linguistics, sociology, and ideology. 28 Work Cited: Agar, Michael. 1994. Language Shock: Understanding the Culture of Conversation. New York: William Morrow and Company, Inc. Baroni, Helen. 2002. The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Zen Buddhism. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group, Inc. Deutscher, Guy. 2010. Through the Language Glass: Why the World Looks Different In Other Languages. New York: Metropolitan Books Frellesvig, Bjarke. 2010.A History of the Japanese Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Freud, Sigmund. 1889 [1998]. The Interpretation of Dreams. Trans. James Strachey. New York: Avon. Fukagawa, Hidetoshi & Rothman, Tony. 2008. Sacred Mathematics: Japanese Temple Geometry. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Keene, Donald. 1996. The Narrow Road to Oku. Tokyo: Kodansha International Ltd. Lakoff, George & Johnson, Mark. 1979. Metaphors We Live By. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 29 Herodotus. 1889. The History of Herodotus: A New English Version.Trans. Rawlinson, George, Rawlinson, Henry, & Wilkinson, John. New York: D. Appleton and Company Suzuki, Daisetz. 1959. Zen and Japanese Culture. Princeton: Princeton University Press Totman, Conrad. 1993. Early Modern Japan. Berkley and Los Angeles: University of California Press Vaporis, Constantine. 2008. Tour of Duty: Samurai, Military Service In Edo, and The Culture of Early Modern Japan. Hawai’i: University of Hawai’i Press Watson, Brian N. 2008. Judo Memoirs of Jigoro Kano. Victoria: Trafford Publishing 30

Anthropomorphy

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How long can an offender stay in jail - Term Paper Example On the other hand, an offender’s stay in jail and in prison is also identified through different codes and points of the law. Thereupon, it is vital to state that there might be different misconceptions as a result of a wrong treatment of the laws. The reasons why such things happen are different: biases, false testimonies, etc. The outcomes may include but not limited to life and death sentences or, at the best case, to the conclusion that an offender is freed, pardoned, or paroled. In this case Neubauer & Meinhold (2009) state the following idea: â€Å"One form of early release is parole, the conditional release of an inmate from prison† (p. 281). This is why the long stay of a detainee is not more than a year, as was mentioned before. It is required that until this moment the verdict is announced by the jury and the final claim is noted by the judge. Once again, it is wrong to state that a judge files a motion. A lawyer is the one who is interested in such a procedur e in order to protect his/her client from misjudgments. In fact, a prosecutor is also eligible to file a motion in order to delve better into the case or to prolong the investigation due to some weighty reasons. However, a prosecutor’s role is a bit different in filling a motion, as â€Å"a prosecutor may decide to dismiss the complaint by filing a motion of nolle prosequi† (Lippman, 2010, p. 5). ... All of the stages of the litigation are important to sum up all pros and cons to decide whether or not an offender should be moved to prison or set free as a result. One of the most outrageous examples is that of Scottsboro Nine in the 1930s. In this vein, the only situation when the judge is eligible to prolong the time period in jail is when an offender commits another crime just being in jail itself. These are rare cases which need additional careful examination and investigation. This is why all records should be accurately filed regarding a definite offender so as to omit misconception or mismatch of any kind: â€Å"It is through the maintenance of accurate records documenting all aspects of an inmate’s stay that institutions are able to reduce the likelihood of litigation and increase their chance for prevailing in court if litigation is filed† (Carlson & Garrett, 2008, p. 146). Thus, the documentation and keeping records safely and accurately arranged is paramoun t for making sure an offender will not stay in jail longer than possible according to the county, state or federal jurisprudence. Besides, an offender may stay longer due to the gender discretion or in case when an offender was previously placed on probation. The first case simply states that female inmates are more likely to have longer sentences just because they are â€Å"less likely to work out a plea arrangement† (Siegel, 2008, p. 551). It makes the judicial system more attentive to the state of mental and physical state of women during pretrial through sentencing stages so as to make sure a female inmate can be placed in prison. The second case is based on the precedent of an offender’s inclination to commit crime in the future. Thus, the term of the arrest

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How meditation can help you become happier and healthier - Annotated Bibliography Example Most of the research done in the articles has strongly linked mindfulness meditation with neurology. In the article, meditation has been associated with various health benefits. It describes a situation where an individual has been able to overcome pain resulting from degenerative osteoarthritis. Moreover, the same practice has been shown to help in relieving symptoms of some diseases such as hypertension and chronic pain. In addition, it has been shown to accelerate the treatment of diseases such as anxiety, depression, and high blood pressure. The source is very useful in highlighting the health benefits that are linked to one engaging in meditation. The source is objective as it is based on various scientific researches. The source will be significant in my research as it will help in proving the health benefit of those that actively takes part in mediation. Freeman, David. â€Å"Try This Simple Meditation Method To Be Happier, Healthier & More Caring (PODCAST).† Huffingtonpost.com. Web. 01 May 2015. . The article begins with noting how powerful the brain is in terms of thinking and reasoning. The brain is also noted as giving human power to reflect on the past and also in controlling the emotions. In a research is done, mediation has been shown as a powerful way of stopping negative emotions and enhancing our resilience in the presence of various challenges that occur in life. It is seen as providing a chance for individual to interrogate their minds. As noted, it helps in increasing awareness of our minds and the mental processes. Hence, in participation in mediation even at a short duration enhances our mental focus as well as empathy and altruism. Consequently, it is described as an ingredient that can uplift one

Effects of Online Games to the Students Essay Example for Free

Effects of Online Games to the Students Essay As time passes by, technology continues to evolve. Because of technology, new things were created that sustains and lightens human work. Computers were created because of technology. Computers were the greatest thing ever invented by man itself. In the modern age, computers have become a part of man’s life. Almost all the things around us were made by computers with the aid of modern machines. From the edited books, design, special effects in movies, and televisions etc., were all made by computers. Along with the evolution of technology, computers continue to upgrade as well until the time that computer has now become a part of man’s everyday life that are hooked to computers. Computers can now edit documents to your PC, play mini games, search information you need using the internet, save documents to your PC and play online games. It’s like an all-in-one gadget that can do all the things you want anytime you need it. From 1990 to the present year, online games had a big impact to us especially teenagers. Online games have many genres, including FPS games, MMORPG, Casual games and multiplayer games. A game will become an online game if it involves in using a computer or a series of computers with one player in each computer to battle it out with other players using the Internet depending on the game genre. Games have always been a popular pastime, but with the advent of computer games they have become even more pervasive. Despite all this progress, we may still stop and ask what makes a game. Because computer games are a subset of games, everything we can say about games in general applies also to them. Nevertheless, computer games are also computer programs, and, therefore, lessons learnt in software construction can be applied to them. A third perspective to computer games is subjective and it concerns finding out what features the players expect from a computer game. A dictionary defines ‘game’ as ‘a universal form of recreation generally including any activity engaged in for diversion or amusement and often establishing a situation that involves a contest or rivalry. A computer game is carried out with the help of a computer program. This definition leaves us some leeway, since it does not implicate that the whole game takes place in the computer. For example, a game of Chess can be played on the screen or on a real-world board, regardless whether the opponent is a computer program The world of online gaming is basically all about community. Gaming has gained such popularity that it could now be considered as practically mandatory. Being great and skilled at playing these video games gives individuals several social benefits. Gaming communities have proven to be powerful, profitable, and at the same time, very fragile. Based on studies and research conducted, gaming has become one of fastest growing in the entertainment sector. It has surpassed the achievements of full-length films, revenue-wise. Gaming is truly a social activity and the mere act of playing games has been directly linked in the establishment of relationships as well as social hierarchies throughout history. Games could be engrossing for many different reasons. Online games or video games are those that could be played over some kind of computer games to those games that incorporate complex computer graphics with virtual worlds that are populated by a lot of players simultaneously. A lot of the video games today have their own associated online communities and these make online games a true social activity that goes beyond the single player games. Online gaming has really made it mark, being an innovative feature of the Internet which would surely be staying and developing in the many, many years to come. In the past, only those who were willing to spend expensive fees and put up with a hard setup process made up online gaming communities. Today, though, a lot of people are getting into, even the younger generation, which raises some negative implications as well on its effect on students. Background of the Study Development of technology brought many things that people do not have many years back. One of those things was online gaming that was provided by the internet. Online Gaming is one of the widely used leisure activities by many people. Teenagers who were playing these online games said that they were playing online games just for fun, to keep away from the heat of the sun, without knowing that there were a lot of effects of playing these games that are more than what they think. Playing online games enabled the mind of the players to be more active, especially those puzzled based-games. It helps the players to come up with decision tight situations, especially those adventure games that kept the players to be alert, active and strategic. Playing online games made the players experience different feelings because it was as if the players really are the one taking the challenges. Despite those benefits, playing online games also brought negative effects, it requires much of the playerâ €™s time, leaving school activities and homework unattended. The Internet has pervaded our society rapidly. It has been major means of communication, used for the exchange of information, for news and for shopping, and now one of the most popular online contents is the game. Online gaming was mainly concentrating on gaming over the internet, where an amount of money is bet on the prospect of a player or group of players winning. Those types of games were usually referred to by the websites as games of skill, and include chess, backgammon and solitaires. Online gaming is a technology rather than a genre, a mechanism for connecting players together rather than a particular pattern of game play. Online games are played over some form of computer network, now typically on the Internet. Some of the advantages of playing online games are, the ability to connect to multiplayer games, although single-player online games are quite common as well, and the ability to build the confidence of the individual in the game that they have used to play. Some of the disadvantages also on playing online games were; the students may be too much hooked on this game and may have insufficient time to study their lessons that their teachers taught them. In the year 2008, most high school students have played a lot of online gaming, and it is very popular. Online games were inspired by video games. The first video and computer games, such as NIMROD (1951), OXO (1952), and Space war! (1961) were for one or two players sitting at a single computer which was being used only to play the game. Later in the 1960s, computers began to support time-sharing, which allowed multiple users to share use of a computer simultaneously. Systems of computer terminals were created allowing users to operate the computer from a different room than where the computer was housed. Soon after, Modem links further expanded this range so that users did not have to be in the same building as the computer; terminals could connect to their host computers via dial-up or leased telephone lines. With the increased remote access, host based games were created, in which users on remote systems connected to a central computer to play single-player, and soon after, multiplayer games. Online games can give us positive effects and benefits to us students, but on the contrary we notice that the students spend more time in playing online games rather than it in such a productive way. Online gaming is an emotionally draining and time-consuming activity. To create more time for the computer, gaming addicts neglect sleep, diet, exercise, hobbies, and socializing. They let their own health go as they do not get the proper rest and nutrition they need. They may suffer a number of health problems from back strain, eye strain, carpal tunnel syndrome, and repetitive stress injury. In this study, sophomore students of College of Business in Polytechnic University of the Philippines (PUP) are the respondents. We chose them as our respondents because we see that most of them are addicted in online games. They are given an opportunity to answer and evaluate themselves whether they can handle playing online games and at the same time can do other important activities. It is for the reason that we are interested in taking a more serious look in the effects of online games particularly to the sophomore students of Polytechnic University of the Philippines (PUP) who are the role models of freshmen students. Theoretical Framework Game theory is a study of strategic decision making. More formally, it is the study of mathematical models of conflict and cooperation between intelligent rational decision-makers. An alternative term suggested as a more descriptive name for the discipline is interactive decision theory. Game theory is mainly used in economics, political science, and psychology, as well as logic and biology. The subject first addressed zero-sum games, such that one persons gains exactly equal net losses of the other participant(s). Today, however, game theory applies to a wide range of class relations, and has developed into an umbrella term for the logical side of science, to include both human and non-humans, like computers. Classic uses include a sense of balance in numerous games, where each person has found or developed a tactic that cannot successfully better his results, given the other approach. Early discussions of examples of two-person games occurred long before the rise of modern, mathematical game theory. The first known discussion of game theory occurred in a letter written by James Waldegrave in 1713. In this letter, Waldegrave provides a minimax mixed strategy solution to a two-person version of the card game le her. James Madison made what we now recognize as a game-theoretic analysis of the ways states can be expected to behave under different systems of taxation. In his 1838 Recherches sur les principes mathà ©matiques de la thà ©orie des richesses (Researches into the Mathematical Principles of the Theory of Wealth), Antoine Augustin Cournot considered a duopoly and presents a solution that is a restricted version of the Nash equilibrium. The Danish mathematician Zeuthen proved that the mathematical model had a winning strategy by using Brouwers fixed point theorem. In his 1938 book Applications aux Jeux de Hasard and earlier notes, Émile Borel proved a minimax theorem for two-person zero-sum matrix games only when the pay-off matrix was symmetric. Borel conjectured that non-existence of mixed-strategy equilibria in two-person zero-sum games would occur, a conjecture that was proved false. Game theory did not really exist as a unique field until John von Neumann published a paper in 1928. Von Neumanns original proof used Brouwers fixed-point theorem on continuous mappings into compact convex sets, which became a standard method in game theory and mathematical economics. His paper was followed by his 1944 book Theory of Games and Economic Behaviour. The second edition of this book provided an axiomatic theory of utility, which reincarnated Daniel Bernoullis old theory of utility (of the money) as an independent discipline. Von Neumanns work in game theory culminated in this 1944 book. This foundational work contains the method for finding mutually consistent solutions for two-person zero-sum games. During the following time period, work on game theory was primarily focused on cooperative game theory, which analyse optimal strategies for groups of individuals, presuming that they can enforce agreements between them about proper strategies. In 1950, the first mathematical discussion of the prisoners dilemma appeared, and an experiment was undertaken by notable mathematicians Merrill M. Flood and Melvin Dresher, as part of the RAND corporations investigations into game theory. Rand pursued the studies because of possible applications to global nuclear strategy. Around this same time, John Nash developed a criterion for mutual consistency of players strategies, known as Nash equilibrium, applicable to a wider variety of games than the criterion proposed by von Neumann and Morgenstern. This equilibrium is sufficiently general to allow for the analysis of non-cooperative games in addition to cooperative ones. Game theory experienced a flurry of activity in the 1950s, during which time the concepts of the core, the extensive form game, fictitious play, repeated games, and the Shapley value were developed. In addition, the first applications of Game theory to philosophy and political science occurred during this time. In 1965, Reinhard Selten introduced his solution concept of sub game perfect equilibria, which further refined the Nash equilibrium. In 1967, John Harsanyi developed the concepts of complete information and Bayesian games. Nash, Selten and Harsanyi became Economics Nobel Laureates in 1994 for their contributions to economic game theory. In the 1970s, game theory was extensively applied in biology, largely as a result of the work of John Maynard Smith and his evolutionarily stable strategy. In addition, the concepts of correlated equilibrium, trembling hand perfection, and common knowledge were introduced and analysed. In 2005, game theorists Thomas Schelling and Robert Aumann followed Nash, Selten and Harsanyi as Nobel Laureates. Schelling worked on dynamic models, early examples of evolutionary game theory. Aumann contributed more to the equilibrium school, introducing an equilibrium coarsening, correlated equilibrium, and developing an extensive formal analysis of the assumption of common knowledge and of its consequences. In 2007, Leonid Hurwicz, together with Eric Maskin and Roger Myerson, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics for having laid the foundations of mechanism design theory. Myersons contributions include the notion of proper equilibrium, and an important graduate text: Game Theory, Analysis of Conflict (Myerson 1997). Hurwicz introduced and formalized the concept of incentive compatibility. Modern game theory began with the idea regarding the existence of mixed-strategy equilibria in two-person zero-sum games and its proof by John von Neumann. Von Neumanns original proof used Brouwers fixed-point theorem on continuous mappings into compact convex sets, which became a standard method in game theory and mathematical economics. His paper was followed by his 1944 book Theory of Games and Economic Behaviour, with Oskar Morgenstern, which considered cooperative games of several players. The second edition of this book provided an axiomatic theory of expected utility, which allowed mathematical statisticians and economists to treat decision-making under uncertainty. This theory was developed extensively in the 1950s by many scholars. Game theory was later explicitly applied to biology in the 1970s, although similar developments go back at least as far as the 1930s. Game theory has been widely recognized as an important tool in many fields. Eight game-theorists have won the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, and John Maynard Smith was awarded the Crafoord Prize for his application of game theory to biology. Game theory, is a branch of applied mathematics that provides tools for analysing situations in which parties, called players, make decisions that are interdependent. This interdependence causes each player to consider the other player’s possible decisions, or strategies, in formulating his own strategy. A solution to a game describes the optimal decisions of the players, who may have similar, opposed, or mixed interests, and the outcomes that may result from these decisions. Although game theory can be and has been used to analyze parlour games, its applications are much broader. In fact, game theory was originally developed by the Hungarian-born American mathematician John von Neumann (http://www.gametheorysociety.org/)

Impact of Globalisation on Architecture

Impact of Globalisation on Architecture What is meant By the Term Globalisation, and How Does It Have an Impact on the Practice Of Architecture? Introduction In any age of change, debates on conflicting ideologies often dominate discussions. The struggle to adapt often results in shaping the social, political, economic and cultural paradigms. In architectural context and urban designs, much has been argued on the ideology of modernism and traditionalism and, more recently, on globalism and regionalism. These ideologies have been tacitly acknowledged, yet their practices have often been considered non-conforming. To effectively argue for an ideology such as globalism, one needs to take into consideration the consequences and impacts based on prevailing evidence, as well as deliberate on opposing views. In the following discussion, the researcher shall discuss globalization and its impact on architecture with reference to various architectural styles that are considered global and assert that globalization has positively affected architectural styles of the world. Discussion Globalization is an umbrella term that refers to a complex and universal phenomenon that has affected varied dimensions including economics, politics, science, history, geography, environment, culture, management, international relations, and professional practices etc. Depending on the context it is used in, globalization can be defined as the growing interdependence of the world’s people †¦ a process integrating not just the economy but culture, technology, and governance. People everywhere are becoming connected-affected by events in far corners of the world.† United Nations Development Program (1999:1). From this definition, one understands that globalization is not only a phenomenon that is understood and appreciated by Western cultures but it is also fast becoming embedded in other regions of the world. Globalization has a daunting influence over almost all aspects of public and private life (Kiggundu 2002). Consequently, it is not surprising that it has also proliferated to architectural practices as well. To understand the influence of globalization on architecture, one needs to first understand the influence of culture on architecture. According to Lewis (2002), architectural history is filled with movements of opposing cultural and aesthetic diversity, which form the basis for architectural philosophy and design ideology. This is because governments, companies and people of nations around the world are the main sponsors of architectural designs and styles, which they use to symbolize their rule and identity. Thus, the Romans developed the magnificent coliseums and temples with the view to depict their empires grandeur (Lewis 2002). The classical Roman architectural designs points to the hegemony of its people who have been the determinism of hierarchy and values of the Roman culture (Tzonis, Lefaivre and Stagno 2001). Furthermore, one also observes that the classical Roman style of architecture depicts cultural hegemony. This trend of cultural influence over architectural design is not isolated in history. During the 19th and 20th century, to establish their identities in colonies they set up, the French and English had controlled the architectural styles of many regions of the world including China, South East Asia, Africa and America. Monumental designs, which have been developed and set in these regions, speak of their colonial rule and changing policies. Regarding colonial cultural hegemony, Metcalf (1989 qt. Wright ) writes, Administrators hoped that preserving traditional status-hierarchies would buttress their own superimposed colonial order. Architects, in turn, acknowledging that resistance to new forms is often based on affections for familiar places, tried to evoke a sense of continuity with the local past in their designs. (Wright 9) After the two World Wars, economic decline and rise of national universalism led to capitalism. European and American architects, according to Lewis (2002), rebelled against the classicism and demanded a new regime for international designs to be adopted with the new industrial, technological, social and political order; hence, emerged the modernist style. Modernism, according to Ibelings (1998), formed the basis for building, during the post-war era. Modern architecture progressed with faith in reason. It introduced the concept of internationalization in architecture, whereby designs of offices, schools, hospitals and housing have been based on multifunction. This style, however, has been fast replaced by postmodernism in which concepts are set on universally accepted ideologies. The post-modern style has become more dominant, partly because of the deterioration of modernism and partly because modernism could not convey the language of people who inhabited buildings and houses built by modern architects. Buildings are to function as vehicles of ideas and activities within it (Ibelings 1998). They need to reflect the aesthetic and inspiration of the people who live in it. It is during this post-modern era that emerged the concept of universalism to express and accommodate symbols of technological development, national progress, economi c integration and internationalization. As a result, during the late 20th century, a wave of architectural styles emerged that reflected the age of globalization. This international style emerged which had been synonymous with standardization, systemization, mass production, functional logic and economies of scale. The new functional type of architectural design has adopted the global culture of commerce and design. The global architectural style triumphed over the historic classical as it is based on the rationale of universalization. The global architects argue that the stylistic buildings during the modern age surpass its classical, constructivist, modernist and colonial counterparts because it facilitates the vernacular expression and allows regional and aesthetic inspiration to integrate into designs (Umbach and Bernd 2005). The global consumers manifest their expectations and ideologies are influenced by market opportunities, business agendas, standardization, franchises, and brands. Buildings are characterized by skyscrapers, towers, malls and branded buildings. The Petronas Towers, Sears Towers, World Trade Centre, Shanghai World Financial Centre and Canary Wharf, for example, all depict consumerism and universalism. Thus, the global architectural style has come to dominate the global arena. The global architectural style has also come to influence the architectural practice. As architect firms cater to international markets, they expand to profit from far away markets, even though the majority are based in the Western countries. They base their designs on a general framework of globalization and post modernism. They are more influenced by the local cultures. Their designs often reflect both, the local elements and universal designs. Oriental buildings, for example, are often based on Feng Shui principles, even though the monument is based on technological and modern architecture. Similarly, high-rise buildings in the US will have used glass, stainless steel and such metals, which depict the nations industrial past. While the above discussion depicts a positive picture of globalization and its influence on architectural style, there are contenders to it as well. Anti-global forces, such as humanists, claim that globalization has eradicated that which is essentially cultural of a place. By introducing functional, standardization and open space urbanism, cities of the world have replaced their historical skyline with ugly steel and concrete. Furthermore, the efforts to standardize and systemize have eradicated cultural identity that is the essence of a nation or state. Instead, today architectural designs are dominated by political hegemony and economic dominance. Buildings of today, like the Kuala Lumpur International Airport, Dubai Airport and Thai Airports, all seem to belong to one style. Malls across the world, for instance, reflect similar functionality, devoid of humanism or cultural identity. Nevertheless, their argument cannot reason with the fact that global designs have purpose and help in conservation of the environment through effective utilization of spaces. It is this new style that provides habitation spaces without compromising land use (Scarpaci 2005; Umbach and Bernd 2005). Conclusion From the above discussion, it is clear that globalization has positively influenced architectural practices and styles. It reflects the culture of modernization, systemization, standardization and functional logic. It also depicts cultural integration, harmonization of spaces and universal consumerism. No doubt, the classical school of thought considers globalization of architecture as infringement over individuality and cultural identity. Nevertheless, they must contend that globalization has in fact alleviated localization through vernacular designs. The writer contends that globalization has replaced the individual aesthetic and cultural uniqueness. One must also acknowledge the fact that globalization has mass produced architecture that once had been a profession of individualism and unparalleled skills. Yet, globalization has benefited more through creative and functional architectural styles, as compared to the classical buildings that benefits a few group of high elites only. References Ibelings, H. (1998), Supermodernism: Architecture in the Age of Globalization, NAi Publishers. Kiggundu, M. N. (2002), Managing Globalization in Developing Countries and Transition Economies: Building Capacities for a Changing World. Praeger: Westport, CT. Lewis, R. K. (2002), Will Forces of Globalization Overwhelm Traditional Local Architecture? Washington Post. November 2. Metcalf, T. R. (1989), An Imperial Vision: Indian Architecture and Britains Raj. Berkeley/Los Angeles: University of California Press. Scarpaci, J. L. (2005), Plazas and Barrios: Heritage Tourism and Globalization in the Latin American Centro Historico. Tucson: The U of Arizona. Tzonis, A., Lefaivre, L. and Stagno, B. (eds) (2001), Tropical Architecture: Critical Regionalism in the Age of Globalization. Academy Press. Umbach, M. and Bernd, H. (eds.) (2005), Vernacular Modernism: Heimat, Globalization, and the Built Environment. Stanford: Stanford University Press. UNDP. 1999. Human Development Report. 2 Vols. New York: UNDP and Oxford University Press Wright, G. (1991), The Politics of Design in French Colonial Urbanism. Chicago/London: University of Chicago Press.

Post Implementation Review of Concur

Post Implementation Review of Concur 1. PURPOSE OF PROJECT CHARTER The purpose of the project charter is to setup the guidelines on which the entire project will go on. Project charter is basically to set the scope, budget, time and technology that will be used in the project after the discussion between client and team members. so, the post implementation review of concur will be done to assess whether extended destinations will meet, to decide how adequately the project will run and to learn lessons for the future, and to ensure that it will be beneficial for concur customers and users to get the conceivable advantage from the project.. Concur was developed by sniff and was further purchased by federation university and they use it for their staff which provides an estimate price for the travel expenses by getting feedbacks from the current users. when it regards to business travel and cost coordination it means everything. So with Concur our business travel and costs are coordinated by giving us a superior client encounter more precise information and wealthier answering to help us to settle on better choices and increment strategy control while sparing time and cash. There travel booking tools gives them arrangement worldwide travel content that is effortlessly open and constantly accessible from any place on the planet. Travelers have an expansive choice of travel decisions in light of corporate arrangement and individual traveler inclinations. Travelers can rapidly book local and global flights and reserve a spot for rental autos, hotels and trains. Once the trip is reserved travelers can oversee trip subtle ele ments like flight delay, cancellationÂÂ   and baggage claims.. Individual can do all these things in a single place. Concur also offer an web application to manage the trips. Concur make the record of all the bills like cab fare, air fare, hotel booking and food bills. There are several apps that are partnered with concur like Uber, Starbucks and they send their bill receipts directly to the Concur app which helps the user to take control of their expenses. 1. BUSINESS NEED IMPACT Concur system helps the people in making their travel easier by giving them the fair idea of the expenses before making a travel. Concur also helps in booking hotels, cabs, air tickets so that the traveler can travel without any worry and can make the arrangements on the spot. This helps business companies to grow while collaborating with Concur by increasing their customers. 2. STRATEGIC ALIGNMENT Project goals: Goal 1: Document the system impact and how it meets the objectives of the relevant stakeholder groups Goal 2: the major problem faced by concur team to deal with software .Its very complicated for the workers to work on this software. Goal 3: Identify the Concur glitches like after the completion of trip, some of the customers are getting e-mails to clear their dues which are already paid by customer. Goal 4: Update Concur with customer requirements like some customers recommend to stay in 3 star hotel rather than 5 star to save their money and some ask to use new technology updates. Goal 5: Address stakeholder and end-user needs 1. OBJECTIVES The objectives of the post implementation review of Concur are as follows: Better customer satisfaction in customer requirements, booking services, real time solution , real time updation in increased air fare and more options to select. Make required update in Concur solutions of problems that are faced by customers Data Analysation to get more correct expense estimate for the trip to be travelled in future. 2. HIGH-LEVEL REQUIREMENTS Req. # I Requirement Description 1 The project should match stakeholders requirements 2 The project should make Concur in control and reduce future risk 3 Identify the impact of Concur implemented 4 Based on the objective facts, judge the system shortfalls 5 Conduct user review and feedback of Concur system 6 Conduct further training and coaching of Concur system 1. TIMELINE Time Activity 08/03/2017 Project begins and weekly activity report start 15/03/2017 Meet with client 25/03/2017 Project charter approved 05/04/2017 Meet with client 07/05/2017 Project progress report approved 18/05/2017 Meet with client 27/05/2017 Team presentation 30/05/2017 Final project report approved 06/06/2017 Individual report 2. KEY MILESTONES Key Milestones Estimated Completion Timeframe Project team formed 28/02/2017-07/03/2017 End-user interview 08/03/2017-30/05/2017 Concur system research 08/03/2017-30/05/2017 Project charter approved 12/03/2017-26/03/2017 Project progress report 02/04/2017-07/05/2017 Team presentation 08/05/2017-27/05/2017 Final project report 08/05/2017-30/05/2017 Project released 30/05/2017-04/06/2017 1. ASSUMPTIONS Projects are actually judged against two parameters: How it is well defined? How well defined are methods to achieve it? Project should be divided in three structures Product breakdown structure Organization breakdown structure Work break down structure For good objectives it should meet following criteria. Outcome Oriented: Speaks to important changes in basic threat and opportunity figures that influence project goals. Measurable: Characterized in connection to some standard scale (numbers, rate, parts, or all/nothing states. Time Limited: Should be achievable within aÂÂ   given period. Specific: Clearly defined so that all people involved in the project have the same knowledge of what the terms in the objective mean . Practical: Appropriate or achievable within the context of the project and in light of the social and financial context. 2. CONSTRAINTS Sometime the roles of team member changes if they cant handle the problem Less training or knowledge of team to understand the project. The analysis report given to client not accepted in case demand changes. Policies selected for accomplishing the goal not liked by the client. Project managers having difficulty to handle team and client because of less experience. 3. RISKS Unreal expenses documents submission by the current users. Change in government policies. Hike in airfares and other traveling aspects. A delay in one task deteriorates the quality of project. Time and budget management risk. Risk Category: Requirement Risk Requirement not fully known at project start Not deliver the expected results to the client Risk Category: Project Management Risk Priorities changes while working on project Sometime same resources required at same time Success criteria not well defined Risk Category: Product/Technology Risk Market competition with the similar softwares. Update in technology may result in budget risk. Technology selected to achieve project goal is poor. Including extra analysis method that are not required. Risk Category: Customer Risk Customer demand new requirements under the given time. Customer not accept the proposal Customer force to work different technology rather than previously used. Client not supportive. 1. ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES This section describes the key roles supporting the project. Person Role Responsibility Fiona Bryant (client) Client Provide information about concur to the team and share problem faced while working with concur. Surjeet singh (team member) Project manager Deliver the project to client expectations, Monitor and report to client on project progress, Advise client if project appears to be in danger of non delivery, control project scope and time, keep contact with team members for their working progress and difficulties, contact coordinator if client is unavailable; Work on plan and write project report of every part of the project with other team members, provide the report to client and supervisor. Taiwo Oseni (Supervisor) Coordinate project Give advice if client is unavailable, help the team to finish the project, help team members contact client if the team loose contact with client, balance the project requirement between team members and client, get project working process and project report from project manager and give advice. Harman (team member) Risk manager, researcher Control the project risk, support/provide responsive action for every times risk if happen; Work on plan and write project report of every part of the project with other team members, , discuss the project report detail with other team members; Amrit (team member) Documenter, Interviewer Work on plan and write project report of every part of the project with other team members, discuss the project report detail with other team members; discuss the client requirement with other team members and how to achieve the requirement; Interview end-user to get system feedback, check the coaching process and training materials Xinwen Hu (team member) Main documenter Execute issue management process when issues happen, Work on plan and write project report of every part of the project with other team members, discuss the project report detail with other team members, integrate all members report and provide it to project manager; Researching and help team members to get useful resources. 2. STAKEHOLDERS (INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL) Stakeholder Interest / stake Importance Fiona Bryant (Client) Make Concur able to use High Project manager Manage project , satisfy client ,fix meetings. Medium Team members Work on project, satisfy client Low Taiwo Oseni (Supervisor) Help team member finish the project Medium FedUni End-user Skilled to use Concur easily High The undersigned acknowledge they have reviewed the project charter and authorize and fund the post implementation review of Concur project. Changes to this project charter will be coordinated with and approved by the undersigned or their designated representatives. Signature: Date: Print Name: Title: Role: Signature: Date: Print Name: Title: Role: Signature: Date: Print Name: Title: Role: